The Tucson Artifacts & Other Pre-Columbian Relics in North America
Introduction
The Tucson artifacts, sometimes called the Tucson Lead Crosses, Tucson Crosses, Silverbell Road artifacts, or Silverbell artifacts, were thirty-one lead objects that Charles E. Manier and his family found in 1924 near Picture Rocks, Arizona.
The find consisted of thirty-one lead objects, including crosses, swords, and religious/ceremonial paraphernalia, most of which bore Hebrew or Latin engraved inscriptions, pictures of temples, leaders’ portraits, angels, and a dinosaur (inscribed on the lead blade of a sword). One contained the phrase “Calalus, the unknown land”, which was used by believers as the name of the settlement. The objects also have Roman numerals ranging from 790 to 900 inscribed on them, which were sometimes interpreted to represent the date of their creation. The site contains no other artifacts, no pottery sherds, no broken glass, no human or animal remains, and no sign of hearths or housing
History
On September 13, 1924, Charles Manier and his father stopped to examine some old lime kilns while driving northwest of Tucson on Silverbell Road. Manier saw an object protruding about 2 inches (5.1 cm) from the soil. He dug it out, revealing that it was a lead cross measuring 20 inches (51 cm) and weighing 64 pounds (29 kg). Between 1924 and 1930 additional objects were extracted from the caliche, a layer of soil in which the soil particles have been cemented together by lime. Caliche often takes a long period of time to form, but it can be made and placed around an article in a short period of time, according to a report written by James Quinlan, a retired Tucson geologist who had worked for the U.S. Geological Survey. Quinlan also concluded that it would be easy to bury articles in the soft, silt material, and associated caliche in the lime kiln where the objects were found at the margin of prior trenches. The objects were believed, by their discoverer and main supporters, to be of a Roman Judeo-Christian colony existing in what is now known as Arizona between 790 and 900 AD. No other find has been formally established as placing any Roman colony in the area, nor anywhere else in North America.
In November 1924, Manier brought his friend Thomas Bent to the site and Bent was quickly convinced of the authenticity of the discovery. Upon finding the land was not owned, he immediately set up residence there, in order to homestead the property. Bent felt there was money to be made in further excavating the site.
Latin Inscriptions
The first object removed from the caliche by Manier was a crudely cast metal cross that weighed 62 pounds (28 kg); after cleaning it was revealed to be two separate crosses riveted together. After his find, Manier took the cross to Professor Frank H. Fowler, Head of the Department of Classical Languages of the University of Arizona, at Tucson, who determined the language on the artifacts was Latin. He also translated one line as reading “Calalus, the unknown land“, giving a name for the supposed Latin colony.[1]
The Latin inscriptions on the alleged artifacts supposedly record the conflicts of the leaders of Calalus against a barbarian enemy known as the “Toltezus“, which some have interpreted as a supposed reference to the Mesoamerican Toltec civilization. However, the Latin on the artifacts appears to either be badly inflected original Latin, or inscriptions brazenly plagiarized from Classical authors such as Virgil, Cicero, Livy, Cornelius Nepos, and Horace, among several others. This has led many experts to condemn the artifacts as frauds. What is perhaps most suspicious, however, is that most of the inscriptions are identical to what appeared in widely available Latin grammar books, like Harkness’s Latin Grammar and Allen and Greenough’s Latin Grammar, as well as dictionaries like The Standard Dictionary of Facts.
Views on authenticity
Manier took the first item to the Arizona State Museum to be studied by archaeologist Karl Ruppert. Ruppert was impressed with the item, and went with Manier to the site the next day where he found a caliche plaque weighing 7 pounds (3.2 kg), with inscriptions that included a date of 800 A.D. A total of thirty-one objects were found. Other contemporary scholars including George C. Valliant, a Harvard University archaeologist who visited the University of Arizona in 1928, and Bashford Dean, curator of arms and armor at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, thought the articles were fakes. Neil Merton Judd, curator of the National Museum at the Smithsonian Institution, happened to be in Tucson at the time of the discovery of the objects and, after examining them, also thought they were fakes, proposing that they may have been created by “some mentally incompetent individual with a flair for old Latin and the wars of antiquity.”
Supporters
In the 1960s, Bent wrote a 350-page manuscript entitled “The Tucson Artifacts,” about the objects, which is unpublished but kept by the Arizona State Museum. Both Manier and Bent were supporters of the objects as a genuine archaeological find.
near the intersection of N. Silverbell and W. Sunset Roads
Lara Coleman Ostrander, a Tucson immigrant and high school history teacher studied the historical background of the research, and translated the alleged history of Calalus from the writings on the items. Geologist Clifton J. Sarle worked with Ostrander to present the Tucson Artifacts to the press and the academic profession.
Tucson University administrator and director of the Arizona State Museum Dean Byron Cummings led archaeologists at the university to the location where the items were found. He brought ten of the objects to the American Association for the Advancement of Science and showing them at museums and universities on the east coast. Astronomer Andrew E. Douglass, known for his work in dendrochronology also considered the items to be authentic.
In 1975, Wake Forest University professor Cyclone Covey re-examined the controversy in his book titled Calalus: A Roman Jewish Colony in America from the Time of Charlemagne Through Alfred the Great. Covey was in direct contact with Thomas Bent by 1970, and planned to carry out excavations at the site in 1972, but was not allowed, due to legal complications preventing Wake Forest University from leading a dig at the site.[3] Covey’s book proposes that the objects are from a Jewish settlement, founded by people who came from Rome and settled outside of present-day Tucson around 800 AD.
Skeptics
Professor Frank Fowler originally translated the Latin inscriptions on the first items and found that the inscriptions were from well known classical authors such as Cicero, Virgil and Horace. He researched local Latin texts available in Tucson at the time and found the inscriptions on the lead items to be identical to the texts available.
Dean Cumming’s student and excavator, Emil Haury, closely examined scratches on the surface of the objects as they were removed from the ground and concluded that they were planted, based partly on a cavity in the ground which was longer than a lead bar removed from it. After Cummings became president of the university, his views changed in an unclear manner, possibly due to Haury’s skepticism, or the increasing sentiment that the items were nothing more than a hoax and as university president had to take a different stand on the matter. George M. B. Hawley staunchly opposed Bent’s views about the objects. Hawley even accused Ostrander and Sarle as perpetrators of the hoax.
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A more detailed background of the find is given in these excerpts of the article, ‘The Tucson Artifacts Hoax‘ by Carl Feagans in Archaeology Review .
“This is the story of how a family outing turned into the discovery of over 30 artifacts–most of them made of lead–that some people think demonstrate the existence of a Roman settlement in the Tucson area around 775-900 CE.
In the sun-baked desert landscape of 1920s Tucson, Arizona, a family went for a drive on Silverbell Road leading northwest out of town then stopped at an old lime kiln for a look around. Even in 1924–a hundred years ago–this was an old site. It was probably built in the late 1800s then abandoned decades before this family outing. One that turned into a historical puzzle that some folks are still debating even today.
Silverbell/Tucson Artifacts site. Note the
caliche layers. Photo from Google Earth.
Charles Minear, along with his wife, daughter, and father stopped along this road that wouldn’t even be paved for many years to come. It was September 13th, but make no mistake, they weren’t enjoying the fall weather. The high for that day was 100 degrees Fahrenheit (almost 38 C). Until 2020, Tucson’s low rainfall record was 5.07 inches that year in 1924.
You also didn’t do an outing like this in an air-conditioned sedan. Your Ford Model T might have been cooled a little with a block of dry ice that you picked up at the gas station and had installed in a special bracket in the floorboard of the car.
While poking around the old lime kiln, Manier’s father noticed a piece of metal sticking out of the ground near the kiln. So Manier went to the car and grabbed a pick and a shovel he had in the trunk then the pair used them to excavate a 17.5 inch tall lead cross that was stuck in a caliche layer 65 inches deep.
The reason it was spotted is because the ground was cut away between the kiln and the road, leaving a steep bank with visible stratigraphy.
Long story short, the Manier family took the cross home, cleaned it up, and noticed that it appeared to be two pieces stuck together. Prying them apart, they found inscriptions inside on both pieces.
As it happens, a neighbor of the Minears was the wife of Professor A.F. Kinnison from the University of Arizona and she knew a Latin inscription when she saw one. So off to the University the artifacts went. A waxy substance found between the two halves was reported to be a petroleum by-product, but ended up tossed out by accident. But a date initially translated from the text was 800 CE.
Manier joined forces with Thomas Bent and together they excavated over 30 more artifacts from the site. Many of the artifacts had inscriptions so they enlisted the help of Laura Ostrander who helped translate and sketch them. It was Ostrander who revealed the story of Calalus, a Roman settlement in what is now Tucson, Arizona but existed between 775 and 900 CE. According to the inscriptions.
Along with the lead artifacts (crosses, swords, spears, and a fan-shaped object), a 12” caliche plaque was recovered. On it were “crudely drawn heads and several inscriptions” (Burgess 2009).
The Dinosaur Motif
One of the reasons many people give for considering the Tucson artifacts a hoax is the ‘dinosaur’ drawing on the hilt of one of the ceremonial sword (seen at left in following image). This however is incredibly short sighted, as dinosaur motifs are quite common in middle-age art with motifs dating back to Egyptian and Babylonian times (apparently those cultures had fossil hunters too!). The fact is that this image actually strongly suggests authenticity not a hoax! What clever forger in their right mind would draw a dinosaur on his fake artifacts if they were trying to convince people that these were Frankish artifacts! See this great article for many other examples of legitimate dinosaur motifs in ancient art and architecture.
Left bottom & top, Sauropod dinosaur on Tucson artifact sword. Center top: Sauropods on Bishop Bell’s tomb Carlisle Cathedral, England (built 1122 AD), Bottom center: Narmer Palette from Egypt 3100 BC. Right top: several medieval age dinosaur motifs depicting St. George and the dragon. Bottom right: jasper cylinder seal, Babylon 3500 BC.
All the 32 total artifacts were made of lead except the caliche plaque:
- 8 crosses
- 9 swords (whole or pieces)
- 13 spears (whole or pieces)
- 1 paddle or fan
- 1 caliche tablet
Though the artifacts were in the form of swords and spears, they were likely not actual weapons due to their weight and the nature of the material. Lead is typically not a metal that can be sharpened or expected to hold an edge. Although ancient cultures often added significant amounts of arsenic to harden soft metals. (For example the Bronze age copper/arsenic sword found in Italy and sourced from Armenia.)
There were a variety of damage, tool marks, nicks, and breaks to the artifacts. None were consistent with damage one might expect from a battle or normal use.
There were no artifacts or features located in the immediate area of the kilns, although there are many archaeological sites dating to as far back as the first millennium BC in the Tucson area.
The artifacts were scattered as opposed to a central location as one finds with caches of hunting weapons (eg. the Wenatchee Clovis cache) or with religious or ceremonial items (eg. Cucuteni-Trypillia figurine caches in Europe).
The stratigraphic context of the artifact finds is interesting. They were found at depths ranging from 54 to 78 inches. The stratigraphy of the region includes layers of gravel, sand, and silt from a Pleistocene alluvial fan older than 10,000 years BP. The caliche layer was between 48 and 72 inches below the surface and many of the artifacts were in or through this layer.
The Inscriptions
Following is a full compilation of the inscriptions found on the various relics. On the vertical beam of the lead cross is this inscription.
“ A.D. 800, Jan. 1.” “We are borne over the sea to Calalus, an unknown land where Toltezus [Toltec] Silvanus ruled far and wide over a people. Theodore transferred his troops to the foot of the city Rhoda and more than seven hundred were captured. No gold is taken away. Theodore, a man of great courage, rules for fourteen years. Jacob rules for six. With the help of God, nothing has to be feared. In the name of Israel, OL.” –Death of Israel in “the War.”–
The second cross has the following inscription:
“Jacob renews the city. With God’s help Jacob rules with mighty hand in the manner of his ancestors. Sing to the Lord. May his fame live forever. OL.
The third cross yielded this inscription.
“From the egg [the beginning] A.D. 700 to A.D. 900. Nothing but the cross. [by suffering] While the war was raging, Israel [the ruler] died. Pray for the soul of Israel. May the earth lie light on thee. He adds glory to ancestral glory. Israel, defender of the faith. [Israel, defender of the faith, adds honor to ancestral honor]. Israel reigns sixty-seven years.”
The next inscription.
“Israel II rules for six. Israel III was twenty-six years old when he began to rule. Internecine war. [A war of extermination, Either to conquer or die.] To conquer or die. He flourishes in [his?] ancestral honor day by day.”
Prepare for either event but hope is not yet crushed. By the grace of God. Time having elapsed, from adversity comes the source and origin of our miseries, the last day comes and the inevitable time. I am present. The Lord be with you.
The next inscription.
“A.D. 880. Israel III, for liberating the Toltezus [Toltecs], was banished. He was first to break the custom. The earth shook. Fear overwhelmed the hearts of men in the third year after he had fled.
They betook themselves into the city and kept themselves within their walls. A dead man thou shall neither bury nor burn in the city.
Before the city a plain was extending. Hills rung the city. It is a hundred years since Jacob was king. Jacob stationed himself in the front line. He anticipated everything. He fought much himself. Often smote the enemy. Israel turned his attention to the appointment of priests. We have life, a people widely ruling. [or ‘Life is to us a people of extensive sway’] OL.”
The next inscription.
“A.D. 895. An unknown land. Would that I might accomplish my task to serve the king. It is uncertain how long life will continue. There are many things which can be said while the war rages. Three thousand were killed. The leader with his principal men [or cheifs] are captured. Nothing but peace was sought. God ordains all things. OL.”
Inscribed on the bottom portion of the first cross, and translated from Latin, found was:
We are carried north over the sea to Calalus an unknown land where people were ruling widely. The Toltesus were lead over the wooded land. Theodorus brings up his forces the city Rhodda and more than seven hundred are captured. No gold shall be taken from the city. Theodorus a man of great courage rules fourteen years James rules six years. With God’s help there is nothing to be afraid of. In the name of Israel. James renews the city. With God’s help James rules with mighty hand in the manner of his ancestors. Sing to the Lord. May his fame last forever.
On the upper half of this cross were the Latin words for, “In Memoriam Councils of great cities with seven hundred soldiers A.D. 800–Jan.” Below these words on two lines were the incised drawings of 3 people.
Above and below the first person (left lobe of the cross) were the words “Britannia,” “Albion,” and “Jacobus.”
Above and below the second person (center): “Romani,” “Aetius,” and “Theodorus.”
Above and below the third person (right lobe): “Gaul,” “Seine,” and “Israel.”
The above inscriptions are interpreted to represent three sequential kings or rulers, listed with the region & country of their heritage. So Jacobus of Albion (Dover) England, then Israel of of Seine (Paris area) in France. With the identity/ heritage of Theodorus being far more cryptic — Aetius being the name of a fifth century Roman general from Romania/Bulgaria (who fought extensively in France, and might have been named after a region of the same name in Romania? (Although Romani typically refers to an indo-European people or gypsies displaced into Europe from the Punjab of India). The first Visigoth King Theodoric I, joined forces with General Aetius in 451 to fight the Huns (and Vandals). Also of note, Theodoric the Great was an revered Gothic king from 470-526 AD whose statue was moved in 801 A.D. by Charlemagne from Ravenna, Italy to Aachen Germany by Charlemagne. Making him a cultural hero of the time, and a favorite Gothic name. So these names might have been re-used in the 800’s as a form of cultural nationalism.
A final inscription which speaks of fourth century events seems to support this theory.
Benjamin was king of the people. They came from Seine to Rome. The bravest of the Gauls. He came to the assistance of the people to lay the foundation of the city. He built a wall around the city to resist the enemy. Benjamin mighty in strength he filled the multitude with religion. He was slain by the Thebans. I heard this from my father five hundred years after, behind the mountain. In memory of his father. (see this link for all translations)
nce in the Punic wars between Carthage & Greek/Egypt (Thebes). Maybe this explains Fatima’s hand and Carthaginian items in the new world? Did Benjamin’s death mentioned in Mosiah 6:5, happen in the New World or Old World?
One of the crosses had a serpent entwining it with a Latin inscription with a mixed short Hebrew inscription. A cross bearing a crescent at the top included images of angels and Masonic symbols along with an inscription also in Hebrew.
[Make a map of all the runic writing found in America, with all the following artifacts.]
The Spirit Pond Rune Stone
Pictures of the Spirit Pond Rune Stones found in Maine, near Popham Beach. Alleged as a hoax by many experts and believed by others. Upper left is SP1 (the map stone), Bottom right is the amulet stone (SP4). Lower left, the Inscription Stone (SP3). SPR. An INCREDIBLY detailed study of the stones can be read here. (photo credit Scott Walters)
Flora Vista Elephant Slabs
The Narragansett Rune Stone
The Narragansett Runestone, also known as the Quidnessett Rock, is a 2.5 t (2,500 kg) slab of metasandstone located in Rhode Island, United States. It is 5 feet high and 7 feet long. The stone is inscribed with two rows of symbols, which some have indicated resemble runes, characters used by Germanic peoples starting around the second or third century CE, with variants used in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian cultures during the medieval period.
The Westford Boat Stone
Medieval Ship Carving … in Westford, MA. Found near the Westford Knight site. Weathering patterns of carving are consistent with that of 600-year-old artifact. And why would a Colonial trail-marker depict a knorr, a 14th-century ship?
The Kensington Rune Stone
Medieval Inscription… in Minnesota. Forensic geology confirms the carvings predate European settlement of Minnesota–so did Runic-speaking Native Americans carve it?
The Hooked X Rune
Medieval Runic Character … on inscriptions found in Maine, Minnesota and Rhode Island. But this rare rune was only recently found in Europe. This conclusively disproves any hoax theory while also linking these three artifacts together.
The Main Penny
The Maine penny, also referred to as the Goddard coin, is a Norwegian silver coin dating to the reign of Olaf Kyrre King of Norway (1067–1093 AD). It was claimed to be discovered in Maine in 1957, and it has been suggested as evidence of pre-Columbian transoceanic contact
The Newport Tower
Medieval stone tower … in Rhode Island. Does it look like any other Colonial structure you’ve seen? Recent carbon dating of the mortar indicates 1400s construction date.
The Westford Knight Sword
Medieval Battle Sword … in Westford, Massachusetts. Can anyone deny the pommel, hilt and blade punch-marked into the bedrock?
The Maine Minoans
In 1975, Michael Rose was digging a house foundation on the banks of the Penobscot River, near Old Town, 10 miles north of Bangor, Maine. At about a dozen feet down, his shovel unearthed a curious, little metal-lic object. It was a flat rectangle approximately 1inch long by three-quarter-inch wide and thin as a dime. The obverse shows what appears to be a woman standing in a doorway. She wears a flounced shirt and a high, pointed cap, with a large necklace hanging to her midriff. Her right hand is extended beyond or in front of the doorway, and in her left she cradles either a snake or a fan with serpentine handle. The reverse displays the punch mark that created the female image on the opposite side. The object may be made of a silver-nickel alloy. (recorded in Atlantic American. From Lost History and Legends)
